Full text of "Chiricahua National Monument Arizona"

See other formats

CH/£

mental assessment

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR / NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT PLAN
and Environmental Assessment

CHIRICAHUA NATIONAL MONUMENT
ARIZONA

Prepared by
Chiricahua National Monument

National Park Service
Department of the Interior

February 1980

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2012 with funding from

LYRASIS Members and Sloan Foundation

http://archive.org/details/chiricahuanationOOnati

ABSTRACT

The Natural Resources Management Plan for Chlrlcahua National Monument
outlines and directs action for the management of natural resources.
The plan is a composite of management objectives and proposed research
and management actions which will provide for the perpetuation, resto-
ration, and protection of Chiricahua's natural resources in an
environment where all natural processes are allowed to exert their
influences .

Management actions are proposed in order to reverse natural resources
deterioration resulting from a complex of factors and include Natural
Resource Monitoring, Fencing of Boundaries, Construction of Trails,
Closure and Rehabilitation of Heavy Use Areas, Site Management With
Native Plant Species, Management of Endangered and Threatened Species,
and Fire Management.

Research actions are proposed to provide a data base concerning those
biotic and abiotic factors which comprise, shape and sustain park eco-
systems. Research actions include Air Quality Monitoring, Hydrology
Research, Soils Research, Fire Ecology Research, Endangered Species
Research and Natural Resources Basic Inventory. Other research may
be included in the management actions where information is needed for
the proper implementation of those management actions.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF FIGURES 1

ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW 2

NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT PLAN 4

INTRODUCTION 4

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND FOR THE NATURAL

RESOURCES MANAGEMENT PLAN 4

MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES 5

NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH ACTIONS 5

MANAGEMENT ACTIONS 7

RESEARCH ACTIONS 11

RELATIONSHIP OF THE PROPOSAL TO OTHER PROJECTS AND PLANS 14

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT 15

DESCRIPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT 15

GEOGRAPHY 15

CLIMATE 15

GEOLOGY 17

VEGETATION 19

SOILS 25

HYDROLOGY 25

AIR 27

WILDLIFE 28

LAND CLASSIFICATION 29

ARCHAEOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, HISTORY AND PALEONTOLOGY 31

VISITOR USE AND FACILITIES 35

REGIONAL INFLUENCES 35

PROBABLE FUTURE ENVIRONMENT WITHOUT THE PROPOSAL 37

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PROPOSED ACTIONS 39

MITIGATING MEASURES INCLUDED IN PROPOSED ACTIONS 43

ADVERSE EFFECTS WHICH CANNOT BE AVOIDED SHOULD THE PROPOSAL

BE IMPLEMENTED 45

Page

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHORT-TERM USES OF MAN'S
ENVIRONMENT AND THE MAINTENANCE AND ENHANCEMENT OF
LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY 46

IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE COMMITMENTS OF RESOURCES
WHICH WOULD BE INVOLVED IN PROPOSED ACTIONS SHOULD
THEY BE IMPLEMENTED 47

ALTERNATIVES TO PROPOSED ACTIONS 48

CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION 50

LITERATURE CITED 51

ill

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Fig. 1 Regional map: Chiricahua National Monument 3

Fig. 2 Location map: Chiricahua National Monument 6

Fig. 3 Average monthly distribution of precipitation

in Chiricahua National Monument 16

Fig. 4 Geologic map of Chiricahua National Monument 18

Fig. 5 Vegetation map of Chiricahua National Monument 23

Fig. 6 Research natural area map: Chiricahua National

Monument 24

Fig. 7 Generalized canyon topography in Chiricahua

National Monument 26

Fig. 8 Land Classification in Chiricahua National Monument 30

ENVIRONMENTAL REVIEW

The Natural Resources Management Plan for Chiricahua National Monument
presents an action program necessary for the long-term management of
the monument's natural resources. The environmental assessment, which
accompanies the plan, describes major components of the environment and
discusses those impacts, alternatives, and mitigating measures involved
with natural resource management actions. The ultimate objective of the
plan is to provide for the preservation and perpetuation of Chiricahua' s
natural resources.

Proposed management actions involving resource monitoring, trail con-
struction, rehabilitation of heavy use areas, fencing, and revegetation
will assist in reversing areas of natural resource deterioration.
Research actions will provide data necessary for a more thorough under-
standing of the living and non-living components of the monument's
ecosystems.

Each proposed action was selected from a list of alternatives. Those
alternatives which met the criteria of being most beneficial to natural
resources without adverse environmental impacts were proposed as the
desired management actions.

Since none of the proposed actions will have significant or adverse
environmental impacts and will not involve irreversible commitment of
natural resources, it is recommended that the Natural Resources Manage-
ment Plan for Chiricahua National Monument be assigned a Negative
Declaration. Environmental impact statements for proposed management
actions will not be prepared unless public controversy or other factors
indicate a need for those documents.

The Natural Resources Management Plan for Chiricahua National Monument
will become an action program after the 30-day public review period has
ended .

Date Superintendent, Chiricahua National Monument

ti/tfof ^/\/Lm*JD

Date Regional Director, Western Region

NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT PLAN

INTRODUCTION

Chiricahua National Monument was established on April 18, 1924. The
purpose of the area is "To preserve the scenery, the natural and historic
objects, the wildlife therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the
same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for
enjoyment of future generations." To satisfy that purpose, and in
accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, the National
Park Service proposes a Natural Resources Management Plan for Chiricahua
National Monument.

The purpose of this plan is to provide a system for the management of
natural resources in Chiricahua National Monument. The plan and its
environmental assessment identify areas of natural resource deteriora-
tion, outline research needs, and present management and research
actions designed to correct deficiencies and provide needed research.

Chiricahua National Monument is located in the Chiricahua Mountains,
Cochise County, Southern Arizona, and contains 10,646 acres. The area
was set aside primarily for the preservation of its geologic landforms.
In time, however, the mountain environment, wildlife, vegetation, and
relative isolation from the impacts of man also became recognized as
prime resources.

LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND FOR THE NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT PLAN

The mission of Chiricahua National Monument is stated directly by
several documents and guided somewhat more indirectly by others. The
enabling proclamation creating the monument was signed April 18, 1924,
pursuant to the "Antiquities Act" and set aside 4,287 acres for
protection as "Chiricahua National Monument". A second proclamation
dated June 10, 1938, more than doubled the size of the monument and
placed it under the direction of the National Park Service Organic Act
of 1916, making the provision for protection, preservation, and enjoy-
ment applicable to the entire 10,646 acres.

The primary mission of the monument has changed little since 1924,
however, several legislative documents have created or modified
policies and objectives related to the management, protection and
preservation of natural resources. The wilderness act of 1964 rec-
ognized the importance of wilderness values and enabled congress to

designate 9,440 acres of Chiricahua as wilderness in 1976. The
Endangered Species Act and Environmental Policy Act in 1969 placed
new demands on management and provided for the identification and
protection of the monument's endangered or threatened plants and
animals. The Clean Air Act, as Amended August 1977, recognized that
the nation's air resources were in a state of decline and designated
the wilderness zone of Chiricahua as a Class I Area where significant
deterioration of air quality is to be prohibited.

MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES

The management objectives of the Natural Resources Management Plan are
as follows:

1. To insure the preservation and perpetuation of the monument's
natural resources.

2. To provide for the perception, appreciation, and enjoyment of the
natural resources while maintaining the unimpaired quality of those
resources.

3. To plan for regulated means by which the visitor can have a mean-
ingful encounter with the resources in the face of increasingly heavy
visitor use.

4. To plan for an on-going program of research and data collection
that will provide management with the information necessary for
intelligent management of the area's natural resources.

5. To carry out a program for the restoration of flora in all of the
monument's heavy use areas.

6. To provide a guide for the proper management of Chiricahua 's natural
resources and create a management program with the overall objective of
allowing natural processes to occur without interference by man.

NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH ACTIONS

An assessment was made, in conjunction with the establishment of the
Natural Resource Monitoring System by Dr. Will Moir, of Chiricahua 's
natural resource conditions in 1973 and 1974. He also evaluated the
park's natural resources management program. He found, in general,
the monument's natural resources to be in satisfactory condition,

however, several areas were identified where natural resources were
altered. Evaluation of the area's natural resources management
program resulted in the discovery of several inadequacies. These
include the following:

1. A few localized areas in the monument had and/or were experi-
encing heavy, uncontrolled, visitor use, or other types of use which
brought about the deterioration of natural resources.

2. There was an absence of control, especially in heavy use areas,
over known adverse environmental impacts.

3. The natural resources management program had failed to allow a
major natural process, fire, to exert its influences on monument
ecosystems.

4. Park management had insufficient quantitative data on natural
resource conditions and trends.

5. Basic knowledge of the components of park ecosystems and their
interrelationships was incomplete or absent.

The following categories of research and management actions are
proposed to correct these inadequacies:

MANAGEMENT ACTIONS

Natural Resource Monitoring System

A natural resource monitoring system was established in March of 1974
to quantitatively assess the condition of the monument's vegetation
and soils in selected locations. Prior to this, management relied on
subjective visual means for assessing the trend and condition of
vegetative and soil resources. These early methods may have been
satisfactory when visitor use was light, but they lacked the sensi-
tivity needed for early detection of deteriorating conditions.
Anticipated increases in visitor use requires more precise, quanti-
tative methods of measurement.

The current monitoring program was designed to obtain timely,
quantitative data and photographic records from field plots. The
system can evaluate existing conditions of the vegetation and soils;
identify areas of high visitor and/or maintenance impact; determine
with increasing precision the visitor use capacity of each management
zone; and provide early warning of declining vegetation and soil
resource conditions.

Maintenance, monitoring, and analysis of the program will be conducted
by the monument staff and/or outside professional personnel. Additional
field methods of resource monitoring may be added to the system when
appropriate.

Fencing of Boundaries

Cattle grazing has resulted in alteration of vegetation composition and
density, soil compaction, and increased erosion in a few localized areas
of the monument. Two miles of the northwest boundary and 1.5 miles of
the southeast boundary were fenced in 1974 and 1975 and trepass grazing
ended. At present, fences exist along all fronts of the monument where
grazing is permitted. However, if Coronado National Forest should expand
its grazing allotments, several unfenced sections of the park, approxi-
mately five miles, could be exposed to grazing. These vulnerable areas
will be fenced, as funds become available, before damage occurs rather
than after the fact. Belt transects were established in those areas
recently excluded to grazing to measure vegetation recovery. The results
of recovery rate data obtained from them was encouraging, since there was
a measurable increase in canopy coverage, vegetation basal area, and
density of grass species within one year after closure to trepass grazing.

Construction of Trails

This management action and the two which follow are interrelated actions
proposed to reduce or eliminate natural resource deterioration. A trail,
approximately 0.5 mile in length, will be constructed around the camp-
ground periphery to confine visitor use to manageable channels, reduce
random travel, and reverse deterioration of vegetation and soil resources,
Engineering considerations will aim both to satisfy visitor desires and
to minimize adverse impacts on resources due to heavy use. In addition
to covering the periphery of the campground, the periphery trail will
connect with trails leading to other locations such as the Environmental
Study Area and the Stafford Cabin. Vegetation restoration and rehabili-
tation of the campground periphery zone will enhance visitor experience
and create the desire to remain on the trail. Maintained trail surfaces
will also reduce amount of random cross country travel to points of
interest.

Closure and Rehabilitation of Heavy Use Areas

Human use in several areas of the monument has eliminated or altered
vegetation. Several abandoned dirt roads, left over from occupation

by the Civilian Conservation Corps and the Silver Spur Guest Ranch
were closed to vehicles for the past few years, but. scars remain,
Road scars total about two miles and recovery of vegetation is not
evident. In addition, the 37-site Bonita Canyon Campground receives
heavy use, approximately 11,000 campers per year, and vegetation is
declining. Research, designed to provide data regarding recovery
rate for vegetation is underway in the campground. Results indicate
recovery rates are slow. If degree of soil compaction is not reduced,
plants will not recover.

More data are needed, but enough exists from studies conducted in
similar Forest Service areas and the park to demonstrate that a
system of campsite closure, combined with seeding, mulching, and
irrigation, effectively reverses the present trend. During spring
and summer in 1977, six campground sites were closed and subjected
to the above treatment. Future of the program will depend upon
success of the 1977 program. Total recovery of vegetation is not
expected, but evidence of definite reversal of present conditions
will be used as the criterion for continuation of the closure system
of management. The objective of the closure system will be to provide
an environment which will allow plant communities to sustain themselves
in the presence of continued public use.

Previously mentioned road scars will be treated in the same manner as
the campground. Roads are no longer used and recovery rates of veg-
etation are expected to be greater on them than at campsites where
heavy public use will continue.

Site Management with Native Plant Species

Native plants will be used to assist In the restoration of flora in
heavy use areas of the park. This program will consist of the
following elements: (1) Intensive seed collection from sources
within the monument. Seeds will be stored and properly labeled to
include source and date of collection. (2) Preparation of seedbeds
including mulching with litter or rocks, supplemental watering, and
erosion control. (3) Site management and continued maintenance of
seeded locations until vegetation is well established. This will
often call erection of temporary and/or permanent exclosures and the
redirection of visitor use patterns.

Fire Ecology and Management

The presence or absence of natural fire is an ecological factor which
shapes, perpetuates, and sustains plants and animals native to an
ecosystem.

Fire has been excluded totally at Chlricahua for the past 40 years

and studies related to fire history and ecology indicate that fire

exclusion has resulted in unnatural changes to the monument's
environment .

Fires occurred for thousands of years at Chlricahua and most if not
all of the monument's vegetation systems and their associated wild-
life populations are either fire- influenced or fire-dependent.
Absence of fire allows increased amounts of fuel to accumulate and
permits tree crowns to close in and shade out many plants which
support various species of wildlife. Some species of plants such
as Ponderosa Pine depend on fire and fail to reproduce effectively
without it. Other species, such as Mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus
montanus) , Manzanita (Arctostaphylos pungens) , and Silktassel (Garry a
wrightii) overmature in the absence of fire. Overmaturity of these
and other species results in lower nutritional value of leaves and
stems, reduced palatability, an increase in crown height placing them
out of reach for many animal species.

The last major fire, covering most of the monument, occurred between
1885-1890 (Jackson, 1970). However, fire history research indicates
that large major fires of this type were probably infrequent and
occurred only under rare or unusual conditions. Small fires which
created a mosaic pattern of burn areas probably occurred most
frequently. Small fires have averaged 1.6 per year for the past
forty years.

Additional fire-related research is proposed to determine the extent
of ecosystem alteration due to fire exclusion. Research results from
natural and/or prescribed fires will be used to correct the problems
caused by fire suppression. The monument will be divided into zones
with natural boundaries selected to limit the extent of fires. Certain
zones will be fire suppression areas, while others will allow natural
or prescribed fires to occur under certain conditions. Where necessary,
experimental plots may be burned to provide information related to fire
behavior in various vegetation types.

A fire management plan will be drafted for the area and will direct
management actions designed to return fire to the environment. The
plan will follow basic guidelines presented in the Western Region
Fire Plan.

Management of Endangered Species

Park management will provide for the identification, protection, and
management of those species recognized as endangered or threatened by

Federal or State agencies. Endangered or threatened species of
animals known either to exist within or to visit Chiricahua include
the following: Peregrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus, and grey wolf,
Can is lupus. In addition to endangered and threatened species, the
following will also be identified and given special management
attention if necessary:

1. Relict populations

2. Species existing at margin of their geographic range

3. Endemic species

4. Species rare or uncommon outside the monument but common within
the monument.

5. Persecuted species (species under heavy hunting or trapping pressure)
found in the monument. These persecuted species are exemplified by

the mountain lion and coyote.

While those species included in the previous five categories may not
be officially recognized as endangered or threatened, they deserve
special management attention.

RESEARCH ACTIONS

Air Quality Monitoring System

The Clean Air Act as amended August 1977 designated Chiricahua as a
Class I area where significant deterioration of air quality would not
be allowed to occur. Air quality is and has been of great importance
in the monument from the standpoint of enhancing scenic values and
the management of natural resources. Air is a natural resource which
affects every component of the area's ecosystems in some fashion and
is essential in sustaining life as we know it.

Data relative to air quality conditions have never been collected in
the monument so it is impossible to determine the extent or severity
of declines in air quality at the present time. Air quality monitoring
devices need to be installed in the near future to correct this situa-
tion and accumulate a data base which can provide baseline information
concerning current air quality conditions. It is impossible for the
monument to control the quality of air which originates outside park
boundaries. However, the installation of air monitoring devices will
be necessary to identify levels, kinds and, possibly sources of air

pollution. Data derived from these devices will also be valuable
in future research concerning the effects of air pollution on
vegetation and wildlife. Also, for other agencies such as Environ-
mental Protection Agency to enforce edicts of the Clean Air Act,
they require knowledge of any air pollution problems and accurate
data to substantiate unacceptable declines in air quality in
Chiricahua.

Vertebrate Inventory

Information concerning numbers and kinds of vertebrate species which
occur in the monument is insufficient for interpretive or management
efforts. Checklists of the area's mammals, birds, and reptiles are
reasonably accurate, however, research aimed at producing an annotated
inventory of vertebrates, including habitat preference and relative
abundance (with special emphasis given to threatened or endangered
species and their critical habitat) has never been conducted at
Chiricahua. Therefore, a vital research project is proposed to
correct the situation and provide adequate information concerning
the monument's vertebrate fauna.

Soils Research

The monument's natural resource data base will continue to be incom-
plete without an adequate soils study and map. Future resource manage-
ment and development planning will be inaccurate and/or incomplete
without data of this type. A soil survey of the area is proposed to
correct the situation. Soil types will be identified and a soils map
compiled. Results of the soil survey will also be analyzed in
conjunction with data from other management actions such as the
Natural Resource Monitoring System and Fire Management.

Fire Ecology

Natural fires have exerted their influences on monument ecosystems for
thousands of years. Plant and animal species either adapted to or
underwent evolutionary alterations in response to powerful influences
exerted by natural fires. Fire exclusion, consisting of a program of
total suppression, has been management policy during the past forty-
three years of the monument's history and has created problems related
to vegetation, wildlife, and alterations to ecosystem processes. Extent
and severity of these alterations is not understood. However, a fire
history (1940-1976) and other on-site observations indicate that changes
to vegetation types, relative to structure and distribution, may have
been slight.

Service policy and management objectives have directed a return of
natural fires, where possible, to park ecosystems. To accomplish
this task, a fire management plan must be developed and carried out.
The first step in the development of a fire management plan will call
for determining where in the "fire cycle" major vegetation types are
and to determine through tree-ring analysis the historic frequency
of fire in selected vegetation types in the monument. This data is
essential to the planning and conducting of a fire management plan
which is long overdue at Chiricahua.

Endangered Species Research

Three species of wildlife (Peregrine Falcon, grey wolf, and jaguarundi)
listed as endangered or threatened have been observed in Chiricahua
over the last few years. Data concerning the distribution, population
status, and critical habitat for these species does not exist at this
time. Research is proposed to provide data necessary to protect,
preserve, and properly manage endangered or threatened species in the
Chiricahua area.

Basic Research Needs

Fauna: Information concerning the area's vertebrate fauna is incomplete.
Research is proposed to provide additional information necessary to
properly interpret and manage the monument's vertebrate fauna. Also,
little is known about the monument's invertebrates. General inverte-
brate surveys will be directed toward identification. Research will
be conducted on ecology of important species.

Flora: R. D. Roseberry and N. E. Dole in 1939 conducted a survey of
plants in the monument, including photographs of major plant features
and a vegetation type map. This first study of the monument's vegetation
also provided information on composition of the area's major plant units.
Tim Reeves of Arizona State University completed another study and
reported it in Vegetation and Flora of Chiricahua National Monument in
1976. The park will continue plant studies as needs are identified.
Special emphasis will be placed on the continuing identification of
exotic, rare, and endemic plants in the area. Techniques will be
developed and used to control or eliminate exotic species and to
preserve native species.

RELATIONSHIP OF THE PROPOSAL TO OTHER PROJECTS AND PLANS

The Natural Resources Management Plan for Chlricahua is In keeping
with those objectives set forth in the Statement for Management (1977),
Wilderness Backcountry Use Plan (1974), and other Service and monument
documents related to the management of natural resources.

The U.S. Forest Service is considering wilderness classification for
those lands in Coronado National Forest which are adjacent to Chlricahua
on the north, south, and east. Inclusion of these Forest Service lands
in the wilderness system will enhance the management of Chlricahua' s
natural resources and provide greater harmony between management objec-
tives of Coronado National Forest and Chiricahua National Monument.

A Phelps-Dodge Copper smelter is located 65 miles away southwest of the
monument near Douglas, Arizona and gases emitted from this facility
frequently affect air quality in the monument area. In addition, the
Sulphur Springs Valley Electric Cooperative, Inc. has begun operation
of a coal fired electric generating station, located approximately
thirty-five miles west of the monument. Both of these installations
could potentially lower air quality values in Chiricahua to a signif-
icant degree and create problems related to health, scenic values, and
resource management.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT

DESCRIPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

GEOGRAPHY

Chiricahua National Monument is situated 70 miles north of Mexico in
the Chiricahua Mountains of southeastern Arizona. It is 37 miles
southeast of Willcox, Arizona, and can be reached from the north by
Arizona 186, and from the south by Arizona 181. The park is composed
of 10,646 acres and is bordered on three sides by Coronado National
Forest and on the fourth side by private ranch land in the Sulphur
Springs Valley.

Chiricahua is a natural area which derives its scenic beauty from
outstanding erosional features in a forested mountain setting. The
basic rock type, Rhyolitic Tuff, has been exposed to extensive frac-
turing, faulting, and erosion resulting in the formation of pinnacles,
spires, balanced rocks, and isolated mesas.

The Chiricahua Mountains are located in the Basin and Range Biogeo-
graphical Province and are often referred to as "sky islands" in that
they, and the flora associated with them, are separated from similar
"islands" by expanses of grassland and desert averaging 10 to 40 miles
in width. The Chiricahuas are not only "islands in a sea of grass" in
the geographical sense, but also in the bio tic sense.

Those sections of the Chiricahua Mountains contained within the monument
boundaries display high relief ranging from 5,160 feet at the northwest
corner to 7,365 feet near Whitetail Pass. Major drainages in the monument
are through Pickett, Bonita, Rhyolite, and Jesse James Canyons. Permanent
streams or lakes are not found within the monument.

CLIMATE

Climatic conditions follow a pattern of spring/fall drought, summer/
winter precipitation. Air quality in the monument area is generally
characterized by low levels of pollution, dust, and humidity which
results in intense light and well over two-hundred days of sunshine
per year.

General aspects of the climate at the monument have been summarized
from data, during the inclusive period 1940-1973, collected at the park
weather station. The mean precipitation during this period was 17.9

O N D J

MEAN PRECIPITATION DISTRIBUTION
C 19*43 - 1973}

Figure 3. Average monthly distribution of precipitation
in Chiricahua National Monument.
C The 1S monthly percentages total 10Q°/o.)

inches (455mm) with the wettest year, 1972, at 25.5 inches (648mm)
and the driest, 1970, at 9.8 inches (259mm). Temperatures during
the interval 1949-1973 inclusive were as follows:

yearly mean maximum

72.8°F

(22.2°C)

yearly mean minimum

43.4°F

(6.3°C)

hottest month- June

mean maximum

89.5°F

(31.9°C)

mean minimum

55.3°F

(12.9°C)

coldest month- January

mean maximum

55.4°F

(13.0°C)

mean minimum

29.4°F

(-0.9°C)

May and June are the warmest months and average approximately 2% of
the year's precipitation, therefore severe moisture stresses are in
effect for vegetation systems during this time of year. Summer con-
vection storms with associated high winds, lightning, and hail are
frequent during July and August. Snow is common from late fall
through early spring and may remain in shaded north-facing canyons
for long periods of time.

GEOLOGY

Chiricahua National Monument was set aside to preserve the unique
rock formations located within it.

Prior to about 30 million years ago, the Chiricahua Mountain area
consisted of volcanic sediments and sediments of water origin. Then,
approximately 28 million years ago, a series of explosive volcanic
events collectively termed "resurgent caldera" began to take place.
The resurgent caldera was of the nue'e ardente, or glowing clouds
type, in which turbulent mixtures of expanding gases and fine ash
emit from vents and pour down the mountain surface. The caldera
responsible for the major rock formations of the monument (Rhyolite
Canyon and Faraway Ranch Formations) is located to the south and is
centered around Turkey Creek Canyon in Coronado National Forest.

Successive layers of hot ash from Turkey Creek Caldera gradually
cooled and welded together in the form of rhyolite rock. Rock
fractured along fault lines and joints to form blocks. Some blocks
were uplifted while others remained in place, resulting in block-
like columns, some of which are 150 feet high and 30 feet in diameter.
In addition to the fault-block process, erosion factors such as wind,
rain, and freezing eroded columns into spires, balanced rocks, and led
to unusually shaped rocks for which the monument is well known.

Q.
Q.

i ci i

_ul"

L
3

Those formations that outcrop in the monument, other than the predom-
inant Rhyolite Canyon and Faraway Ranch Formations, are limited in
occurrence (Sabins, 1957). Approximately 75% of the surface of the
monument is covered by the Rhyolite Canyon Formation. The Faraway
Ranch Formation is exposed only in the western portion of the monument
(Fernandez and Enlows, 1966) and a narrow band across the northeastern
corner of the monument.

A unique feature of Chiricahua National Monument, not directly related
to the ash flow, is the ancient "lake bed" that is exposed in Bonita
Canyon along the park road to Massai Point. This lake bed underlies
the dominant Rhyolite Canyon Series and was exposed when the block
fault tilted to the west leaving the eastern side upthrown.

These sedimentary deposits are conglomerates composed mostly of sand-
stones, siltstones, and tuffs which were collected during a period of
seasonally humid climate. After short transport they were deposited
in the shore zone of a permanent lake. No fossil evidence or organic
remains of any kind have been found in these sediments.

VEGETATION

Chiricahua is floristically and physiognomically diverse. The monument's
vegetative diversity is a reflection of many factors, among which are
latitude, elevation, topography, soil composition, precipitation,

climate, and natural fires (Reeves, 1976).

There are three important considerations in relation to the monument's
flora: First, many species of plants, once distributed more widely in
the region, are now restricted to the mountains. Approximately 10,000
years ago, climatic changes led to changes in plant distribution. Grass-
lands gradually replaced the oak-pine woodland, which then extended from
the Sierra Madre in Mexico, restricting this woodland type to mountain
slopes and washes. These mountains are now the northern limit of sev-
eral species of "Mexican" oaks and pines. Second, higher elevations of
the Chiricahuas serve as the southern limit of many plant species more
common in northern latitudes. Finally, the Chiricahuas serve as a
refuge for several endemic plant species.

The vegetation of the monument has been studied in considerable detail.
Roseberry and Dole (1939) recognized twelve vegetation types in the
monument. Reeves (1976), using the Brown and Lowe (1974) system of
vegetation classification, recognized five Formation Types and ten
Community Types. These Formations and their associated Community Types
include the following:

Temperate Forest

Three types of temperate forest communities are found at Chiricahua.
These types are Montane Conifer Forest, characterized by Douglas Fir
and Ponderosa pine and found on mesic north facing canyons and up-
lands; Relict Conifer Forest, characterized by Arizona Cypress and
found in low to mid-elevation canyon bottoms; and Deciduous Riparian
Forest, characterized by walnut, sycamore, and ash, and found in the
monument only in lower Bonita Canyon. The vegetation type map, in-
cluded in the environmental assessment, shows the Montane and Relict
Conifer Forest communities under the Mexican Oak-Pine Woodland Type.

Temperate Woodland

Approximately 65% of the monument is covered by woodland types
(Roseberry and Dole, 1939). The two major community types are the
Mexican Oak-Pine Woodland, characterized by Chihuahua pine, Piffon
pine, Juniper, Arizona White oak, Palmer oak, and Net Leaf oak and
the Encinal (Oak) Woodland, characterized by Emory oak, and Arizona
White oak. The Mexican Oak-Pine Type is found throughout the
monument depending upon slope and elevation. The Encinal (Oak)
Woodland Type is restricted to open lower canyons and south facing
slopes (Reeves, 1976).

Temperate Scrubland (Chaparral)

Two chaparral communities occur in the monument, the Evergreen
Sclerophyll Community and the Mixed Shrub Community. Both of these
community types are found throughout the monument and often form
dense, nearly impenetrable thickets. The Evergreen Sclerophyll
Type is characterized by Manzanita (Arctostaphylos pungens ) , and
shrub oaks. Moir (1974) refers to this type as "dense to relatively
open chaparral woodland vegetation typical of uplands and tablelands
of rhyolite tuff in Chiricahua National Monument." The term chap-
arral-woodland denotes mixtures of vegetation types and much of the
monument's vegetation is a mixture of woodland species and chaparral
(Reeves, 1976). The Mixed Shrub Type is characterized by Desert
Willow (Chilopsis linearis), Willow (Salix spp.), and Baccharis
salicifolia and is found along West Whitetail Creek.

Temperate Grassland

Two grassland community types occur in the monument, the Gramma
Grass-Scrub Community and the Mixed Grass-Scrub Community. The

Gramma Grass-Scrub Type Is characterized by Blue Gramma (Bouteloua
gracilis) , and shrubs such as Prosopis glandulosa, Ericameria
laricifolia, Baccharis pteronioides, Fallugia paradoxa, Mimosa
biuncifera, Opuntia phaeacentha, and Lycium pallidum (Reeves, 1976).
The Mixed Grass-Scrub Type is found primarily on south-facing slopes
at lower elevations and is dominated by mixed grass species such as
Bouteloua hirsuta, JB. repens , Lycurus phleoides, and Schizachrium
cirratum and shrub species such as Ericameria laricifolia, Acacia
angustissima, and Baccharis pteronioides. Agave palmeri and Dasyliron
wheeleri are also frequently found in this community type, as are
members of the cactus family such as Echinocereus triglochidiatus ,
and Opuntia phaeacantha.

Temperate Marshland

A Rush Community Type occurs only in the Silver Spur Meadow and is
characterized by "wetland" species such as Juncus mexicanus, and
Equisetum ferrissil. Other interesting species include cardinal
flower Lobelia cardinalis, and centaury Centaurium calycosum. Grass
species known within the monument only from the Silver Spur meadow
are Bromus carinatus, Muhlenbergia asperifolia, and Sphenopholis
obtusata (Reeves, 1976).

In 1975, a new genus and species of plant, Apacheria chiricahuensis ,
C. T. Mason, was discovered in the monument. Two other species,
Perityle cochisensis, and Astragalus cobrensis, are endemic to the
Chiricahua Mountains and are common in the monument. One species
of orchid, Hexalectris warnockii, has been found in the State of
Arizona on one occasion, that being in Chiricahua National Monument
(1964).

Research Natural Areas

Thirty-six research natural areas have been created in Arizona and
five of these are located in Chiricahua National Monument. Research
Natural Area is a classification used by Federal land management
agencies to designate lands on which various natural features are
preserved in an undisturbed state solely for research and educational
purposes. Natural processes are allowed to dominate in Research
Natural Areas and natural features, vegetation in the case of
Chiricahua, are preserved for the following:

1. To provide baseline areas against which the effects of human
activities in similar environments can be measured.

South Shake Spring

East Picket Park

Picket Park

Far West Picket Park

Jesse James

2. To provide sites for study of natural processes.

3. To provide gene pool preserves for plant and animal species,
particularly of rare and endangered types.

Five Research Natural Areas have been designated in the monument as
follows :

ESTABLISHED RESEARCH NATURAL AREAS IN CHIRICAHUA NATIONAL MONUMENT

Natural Area Acreage Primary Interest

Interior Douglas Fir
Pinyon- Juniper
Interior Ponderosa Pine
Arizona Cypress
Interior Live Oak

All of these areas are now included in the 9,440 acres of designated
wilderness found at Chiricahua. Dr. W. H. Moir examined the five
natural areas in 1972 and found that while the areas did not represent
all vegetation types found in the monument they did represent typical
vegetation types found over much of the monument (Moir, 1974).

Visitors have had little impact on vegetation except in a few heavy use
areas. However, the management policy of fire exclusion has adversely
impacted vegetation. Roseberry and Dole composed an accurate vegetation
type map in 1937. Prior to that time, natural fires were not effectively
controlled in the monument; therefore, distribution, content and condition
of vegetation types as described by Roseberry and Dole should accurately
represent the condition of vegetation systems before fire exclusion
became management policy.

During the last few years, the Roseberry and Dole map has been compared
to vegetation systems as they presently exist. The results of this com-
parison indicate that the basic distribution, structure, and content of
vegetation types has changed little in the last forty years. However,
several plant species which are fire dependent are not reproducing, fuel
accumulations are increasing, and many plant species which serve as browse
for wildlife are overmature and in a state of degeneration. Adverse
effects of fire exclusion will continue until fire returns to the
monument's ecosystems.

in
V

Q.
<

p <" !

i-
<

I i

_l < z

;» -J <

5 °> ?

5 «> 5

u < <

Z I i

I z

< -1
oo

z°

UJZ

PI J

E I

3 O £
If]

• e i
oc o |

S'ff a

1 <o ■

O C 3

g ,.„ I ►

— ; — m- 1 mr,

a ■

S2s#rf ^5 to ....

■ .
-.

™H ■ . . .

(/)

•

o ^

<
t-

-J

3
Z

111

■

c
a

Q-

CO Ifl

a re

-£ 0-

" i

o
nr

<
z
<

D
I

5 S
u. a.

O a

■" CM

*t in

: -,k- . •

v
r: . ■ i

• — — — '■ — - —

• I

i r //

..J

L.__

■

I
!

SOILS

Most of the monument's soils, with the exception of those in the south-
west and northeast corners, are derived from rhyolite.

Mesas

Soils of the mesa tops are coarse and shallow with Rhyolite caprock very
near to or on the surface. Runoff is excessive and the scouring effects
of wind and rain restricts soil accumulation to very localized areas
around vegetation bases and pockets in rock.

Canyon Sideslopes

Upper slopes are usually very steep and the soils in these areas are
rocky and poorly developed, with excessive drainage. Midslope soils
range from shallow to moderate depths, are well drained and poorly
developed. Lower slopes, frequently have deeper colluvial soils on
moderate grades. In some areas, the lower slope soils are mixtures
of sediments deposited by both stream and downslope movement. Else-
where, localized basin fill, as in Pickett Park, or fans, such as the
Southwest corner are of Quaternary alluvium (Gile and Hawley, 1966).
Other localized parent materials of Canyon sideslopes include talus
or rock land. Climatic gradients of the canyons of Chiricahua are
enhanced by complex drainage and soil patterns of sideslopes to
produce a variety of vegetation types (Moir, 1974).

Canyon Bottoms

Canyon bottoms generally have deep, stable, alluvial soils and provide
the most mesic habitats in the monument. While the stream channels are
seasonally scoured by runoff from summer storms, the adjacent, relatively
level, terraces are usually covered with heavy deposits of litter. They
support stands of oak, pine, and Arizona cypress.

HYDROLOGY

Permanent streams or lakes do not occur in the monument and water avail-
ability depends on the amount of precipitation that falls on the water-
sheds and ability of soils and rock to store and transmit water. Within
the monument, volcanic rocks are able to yield stored water in only
limited quantities because their joints and fractures either are not

If?

Rhyolite Rock

Columns

.M<

Upper Slope

Mid Slope

Lower Slopi

Terrace

Stream Channel

Figure 7. Generalized cenyon topography in Chirlcahua
National Monument.

interconnected or have a small total capacity. Alluvial soils are more
permeable than the volcanic rocks, and can store and deliver greater
amounts of water (Johnson, 1959).

Surface flows in Rhyolite and Bonita Creeks occur during the summer
rainy season, but their flow patterns are markedly different. Although
both drainage systems receive approximately equal amounts of precipi-
tation, Rhyolite Creek may flow continuously for several months after
the summer rains begin, while Bonita Creek has short intermittent periods
of flow. The variation in runoff patterns between the two probably
relates to differences in vegetation cover and degrees of fracturing in
rock beneath their drainages.

There are several springs within the monument. Shake spring, Bonita
spring, and Bridger spring are all located in Bonita Canyon. Bridger
spring is now inactive but Shake and Bonita springs have never been
known to be dry and presently serve as a dependable water supply for
the area's wildlife populations.

Two wells provide the domestic water supply for the monument. Both wells
are located in Bonita Canyon near the campground. While they fluctuate
in response to seasonal drought they have provided adequate water for
monument demands. Hydrological information is limited for the monument
and proposed research actions have been designed to correct this situation.
Water monitoring schedules have been established and water quality is
measured regularly in accordance with Public Law 92-500, 86 Statute 816.

AIR

Clean air, clear skies, and ability to see prominent landscape features
for long distances, 75-100 miles dpending on location of viewer, have
made Arizona famous in many parts of the world. Arizona's excellent
air quality conditions were characterized by low particulate matter,
low humidity, and extreme clarity. However, as Arizona's population
increased air quality decreased and air pollution became a major problem
in much of the state.

Air is an essential natural resource component which influences all other
natural resources and is, therefore, of great importance in all natural
resource management considerations. Air pollution has increased in the
Chiricahua area but the extent of increase or effects of air pollution
on the monument's flora and fauna are unknown. Research is proposed to
acquire appropriate information concerning air quality.

WILDLIFE

Chiricahua supports a variety of wildlife and information exists on
the more prominent species, especially large mammals, such as deer.
However, information concerning smaller, less conspicuous species of
wildlife is absent. Extensive studies of the monument's vegetation
and geology have been conducted but ecological studies related to
wildlife populations have generally been limited to a few species.

Mammals of Chiricahua include mountain lion, mule deer, whitetail
deer, fox, coati, peccary, and black bear. Due to isolation of
mountain habitats, some forms of wildlife, such as Apache fox
squirrel, have become locally distinct. The coati and Apache fox
squirrel are at their northern limit of distribution in the Chiricahua
Mountains. The jaguar (Endangered) was last sighted in the monument
in the early 1900 's and the grey wolf (Endangered), has been sighted
in the monument several times in the last six years.

Over 100 species of birds have been recorded in the monument, and
nesting sites for hawks , falcons , golden eagles, and owls are present
in many vertical cliff sections in the area. Birds of particular
interest, because of their peripheral or threatened status, include
the zone tailed hawk, northern violet crowned hummingbird, western
blue throated hummingbird, coppery tailed trogon, peregrine falcon
(Endangered), and great blue heron.

Reptiles and amphibians are common in the monument and over sixty
species have been recorded on checklists. Amphibians include the
Western spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus hammond) , Great Plains toad (Bufo
cognatus) , and canyon treef rog (Hyla arenicolor) . Reptiles are well
represented, and include alligator lizards, skinks, and thirty two
species of snakes. Three species of rattlesnake, banded rock, twin
spot, and Arizona ridgenose, are endemic to the mountains of South-
eastern Arizona.

Few invertebrate species have been listed to occur in the monument
largely due to the absence of research. A small insect collection
has been made, but information on these and other invertebrates is
limited.

Continued hunting and trapping of predators in the adjacent Coronado
National Forest plus extensive predator removal on neighboring ranch-
lands has altered predator-prey relationships in the monument and
will complicate the reestablishment of natural balances. In addition,
fire exclusion has been responsible for reductions in plant diversity
and consequently a reduction in animal diversity.

LAND CLASSIFICATION

For management purposes, the monument's land has been divided into
four zones, one of which has been further divided into three sub-
zones. The classifications have been selected primarily by
considering such factors as significant resources, present uses,
and legal and legislative constraints.

Development Zone

This is a single zone of 100 acres whose dominant use is the provision
of facilities and services for visitor use and enjoyment of the area.
Facilities include, but are not limited to a visitor center, a camp-
ground, monument offices, support facilities, employee housing, and
vehicle parking. The zone is managed to provide necessary services
while limiting their impact on the natural scene.

Natural Zone

Natural Environment Sub-Zone

Two parcels comprising 420 acres have been classified in the "Natural
Environment" sub-zone. They are essentially buffer zones separating
designated wilderness areas from developed areas. These lands are
managed to maintain their primitive character.

Wilderness Sub-Zone

This sub-zone covers two major areas that were designated by Congress
(PL 94-567, 10-26-76) as wilderness totalling 9440 acres which are
managed primarily to perpetuate natural and primitive land character-
istics. Within this designation development and "improvements" are
limited to the absolute minimum required for administration of the
area. There are no roads and no structures, with the single exception
of the fire lookout on Sugarloaf Mountain. Motorized equipment and
aircraft are not to be used in this sub-zone except in emergencies
involving health and safety of persons in the area.

Outstanding Natural Features Sub-Zone

An area totalling 3020 acres comprises the Outstanding Natural Features
Sub-Zone. This sub-zone contains outstanding geological features, the

^■*

-I

LLI

z
o

I
<

-J
<

z
<

3
<

E 2

LU
~l

-1
<

-i

LU
>

175

fe^iilfel

-&i. '■:':--' , il'!,lil", '■.'', —

■

-u

iuSs

wmm-
mm

ifca

M Hi

jtffjilllfffllijl

•,

;

ill r'. , I

primary monument road, and parking area and interpretive shelter at
Massai Point. 2,270 acres of this area are located within designated
wilderness and therefore share concurrent land classification with the
wilderness sub-zone. This sub-zone is managed (1) to protect and
preserve the area's natural and scenic resources and (2) to provide
minimal facilities necessary for public use and enjoyment of those
resources. Therefore, all facilities are designed and constructed
so as to minimize their impact on the surrounding natural features.

Historic Zone

This zone of 3.5 acres contains the Stafford Cabin National Register
Site. It is managed for preservation, protection, and interpretation
of this property and subordinates all other uses to preservation of
this significant historic resource.

Special Use

The "Special Use" zone is the monument's only remaining inholding.
The inholding, 2.35 acres, and the corridor of an administrative road
whose primary function is to provide access to the inholding are
located in the northeast corner of the monument. Management of the
road is directed toward minimum maintenance as required to serve its
present purpose. The inholding has been designated as potential
wilderness.

ARCHAEOLOGY, ETHNOGRAPHY, HISTORY, AND PALEONTOLOGY

Cultures of the past, whether they were foragers who gathered wild
plant food and hunted animals, or agricultural peoples, who depended
upon water and arable land, used the Chiricahua Mountains and sur-
rounding valleys for at least 10,000 years. Therefore, the primary
archaeological significance of the monument lies in its potential fund
of information relating to limited or seasonal use by past cultures.

The Cochise culture (8000 B.C. -100 A.D.) existed in valleys to the
east and west of the monument. This culture represents the earliest
evidence of man in this area and has been divided into four stages:
Sulphur Springs (8000-5000 B.C.), Cazadore (5000-4000 B.C.), Chiricahua
(4000-2056 B.C.), and San Pedro (1350 B.C. -100 A.D.). The lifeway of
the Cochise culture was primarily one of gathering and hunting. Since
subsistence depended upon the gathering of wild plants and hunting, the
people of this culture probably moved continuously throughout several

ecological zones and did not establish permanent villages. However,
during the San Pedro stage, indications are that a transition from
gathering and hunting to agriculture occurred. The San Pedro stage
seems to be the final phase of the Cochise culture. Apparently
during this period wandering hunters and gatherers of earlier stages
were gradually replaced by people who engaged in rudimentary forms
of farming and settled in more nearly permanent villages.

The Mogollon culture (300 B.C. -1200 A.D.) may have evolved directly
from the Cochise culture of the San Pedro stage by a process of slow,
continuous development. While cultural differences between the two
may have been slight from one generation to the next, the Mogollon
culture eventually became a fully developed, pit-house village, agri-
cultural system (Quinn and Roney, 1973). Grasslands and outwashes
were the most frequently farmed types of land during the Mogollon
period and areas in the monument which provided water and arable land
could have been used by these people. As an example, lower Bonita
Canyon has deep soils and permanent springs and would have been an
ideal location for village farmers of the Mogollon period.

The Salado culture (Southeastern Arizona 1200 A.D. -1400 A.D.) marks
a significant change in village organization and house construction
among agricultural peoples of southern Arizona . The Salado constructed
large surface pueblos, such as Casa Grande, rather than pit houses or
individual surface dwellings. This change in village construction
reflected an increase in the intensity of agricultural activity. Most
researchers agree that the Salado culture was a combination of Hohokam,
Anasazi, and Mogollon (McGregor, 1965).

Polychrome pottery is the primary distinguishing characteristic of the
Salado (Steen, 1962) and a large village site containing this type of
pottery was excavated in the San Simon valley from 1940-1949. The
village consisted of a group of small surface pueblos which exhibited
many of the Salado building characteristics. In addition, sites were
found in the Portal, Arizona area, south of the monument, which appear
to have been occupied by the Salado between 1200 and 1400 A.D.

The ultimate fate of agricultural peoples who inhabited this area is
unknown, however, evidence indicates that southeastern Arizona was
largely abandoned by 1400 A.D. The reason for abandonment could have
been that the farming population reached such proportions that water
supplies were no longer sufficient to sustain the extensive agricultural
system.

The most recent native inhabitants of the area were the Apache, who
arrived around 1500 A.D. There is no evidence that the Apache secured

the area by force and this supports evidence that the area was abandoned
prior to their arrival.

Hunting and gathering were the primary lifeways of the Apache but they
also practiced limited agriculture. Like the earlier Cochise people,
they foraged in the monument area. Also, the Apache participated in
occasional raids on neighboring non- Apache Indian groups and eventually
on Mexicans and Anglo ranchers and by the nineteenth century raiding was
of considerable economic importance in Apache culture.

The Apache population consisted of scattered bands dispersed through the
countryside (Opler, 1941). Seasonal migrations were required by gather-
ing and raiding activities; therefore, camps were temporary. Because
of their transiency, the Apache have left a scanty archaeological record.
Apache sites in the area are recognized primarily by presence of metal
projectile points, glass beads, mescal pits, and wickiup depressions
(Quinn and Roney, 1973).

The earliest documented ventures by Europeans into the Chiricahua area
were those of Spanish expeditions. The Spanish eventually organized
military expeditions, in retaliation for Apache raids on Spanish settle-
ments, against the Apache in the mid-eighteenth century. These expedi-
tions were continued by Mexican troops until the United States acquired
the area through the Gadsden Purchase of 1854. Apaches were friendly to
Americans at first and allowed trappers in the area in the 1820' s. The
first survey of the area was conducted by John R. Bartlett in 1851, and
another survey team, led by Lt. J. G. Parke, visited the area in 1854
and camped in what is now the Fort Bowie National Historic Site. Apache
relations with the Americans deteriorated after 1854 and finally led to
warfare in 1861.

In 1878, the Apache Wars were almost over and only scattered bands of
guerillas such as Geronimo's group were offering resistance. Several
ranches were being established in the area and silver was discovered
on the southeastern slopes of the Chiricahua Mountains creating the
boom- town of Galeyville.

The Riggs family established a ranch five miles west of lower Bonita
Canyon in 1879 and in spring of the same year Lewis Prue constructed
a block house near the mouth of Bonita Canyon. In 1880, Colonel J. Hughes
Stafford built a cabin above the Prue house and raised truck garden pro-
duce which he irrigated with warm water from thermal springs. Stafford
sold the produce to Fort Bowie on a regular basis until the earthquake
of 1887 when the thermal springs became cold. In 1881, Neil Erickson,

a Swedish immigrant and member of the fourth cavalry at Fort Bowie
was temporarily stationed at an Army camp in Bonita Canyon. Erickson
left the Army in 1886 and in 1888 established the Faraway Ranch, one-
quarter mile below the Stafford cabin. Faraway Ranch house was started
by Erickson in 1888 and represents one of the two structures of this
type to be built in southeastern Arizona in the 1880' s.

Cattle ranching became the mainstay of the local economy in the late
nineteenth century and initiated severe environmental deterioration in
many areas. The San Simon Cattle Campany allowed as many as 80,000
cattle to graze in the San Simon Valley for several years. Cattle in
numbers such as these severely altered vegetation systems and the exten-
sive grasslands, characteristic of the valley, were diminished to be
replaced by desert shrubs and plants indicative of poor soils and
declining natural resource conditions. A five-year drought in the
1890' s plus declining cattle prices brought an end to the San Simon
Cattle Company but vegetation of San Simon Valley has not recovered
significantly in the years which have followed.

Fifteen buildings and structures in Chiricahua, dating from the Civilian
Conservation Corps era, are on the List of Classified Structures. They
have potential National Register significance due to their CCC associ-
ations and their rustic architecture. Built mostly of native stone, the
buildings harmonize well with their environment and as a group excellently
represent one of many particular styles of rustic design.

The Echo Canyon Trail is also on the List of Classified Structures as
a result of its CCC associations and potential significance in landscape
architecture.

A study of the historic background of the monument for interpretation,
management or planning, and a historic resources study will be programmed
in preparation of National Register nominations on the listed structures
as well as any other structures or sites identified in the study. Acqui-
sition of Faraway Ranch was proposed in 1978, and Congress has recently
passed legislation adding it to the monument. A required historic
structures report including historical and architectural data sections,
will be programmed soon for this acquisition.

Paleontological resources are limited. Paleozoic brachiopods in lime-
stone deposits located in the northeast corner of the monument represent
the only known fossils in Chiricahua National Monument.

VISITOR USE AND FACILITIES

Approximately 60,000 people visit Chiricahua each year. Upon entering
the monument, visitors are required to stop at the Visitor Center and
pay a daily- use fee, and camping fee if applicable. Generally, visitors
spend fifteen minutes to one-half hour viewing exhibits and a slide
orientation program. Ninety-three percent of Chiricahua' s visitors
view the monument from the seven-mile paved road that begins at the
Visitor Center (Elevation 5400') and ends at Massai Point (Elevation
6800'). At Massai Point, about eighty percent of the visitors tour
the geological exhibit building and walk the five hundred yard self-
guiding nature trail. In contrast, less than thirty percent walk the
Forest Foothills nature trail located at the Visitor Center.

Seven percent of Chiricahua' s visitors hike through the monument on the
seventeen mile trail system. In addition to the one-half mile nature
trails, twelve miles of improved trails lead through Heart of Rocks,
Echo Canyon, Sara Deming Canyon, and Rhyolite Canyon. These trails
begin at Massai Point and terminate at the Visitor Center. The Natural
Bridge trail (2.5 miles) begins three miles north of the Visitor Center
and penetrates the Picket Park Natural Area. Sugarloaf trail (1 mile)
begins one-half mile north of Massai Point and ascends Sugarloaf Moun-
tain (Elevation 7300'). A one-half mile trail begins at the campground
and leads to the Silver Spur meadow and the Visitor Center. The re-
generative capacity of the backcountry through which these trails pass
is good and present use levels can be sustained.

Approximately 11,000 visitors per-year remain overnight in the 37 site
Bonita Canyon campground located two miles north of the Visitor Center.
Backcountry camping is not allowed. The campground has indoor restrooms
and water is available. The camping area is the most heavily used and
impacted unit in the monument and management action will be taken to
reduce or eliminate further deterioration.

REGIONAL INFLUENCES

The Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service states that their
records show a total of 2.2 million acres of recreation lands, admin-
istered by Federal, State, and local agencies, occur within 100 miles
of the monument. Most immediate of these areas to the monument is
Coronado National Forest. Ten miles south of the monument visitor
center is the 18,000-acre Chiricahua Wilderness which encompasses the
crest of the Chiricahua Mountains. Since most of the acreage of this
wilderness area is in the Transition, Hudsonian, and Canadian life
zones, it complements the oak-pine woodland of the monument and provides

area visitors with an opportunity to visit a variety of mountain
habitats. The Forest Service maintains a graded road across the
Chiricahua Mountains through Pinery Canyon and a dirt road used
for grazing management also traverses the Forest Service area to
the north of Picket Park. Remains of an old dirt road traverse
Hands Pass to the east of the monument and serves as a four-wheel
drive road for visitors. Rustler's Park and Barfoot Park camping
areas, located south of the monument, are especially popular during
the summer but are generally snow closed during the winter months.

A major research facility of the American Museum of Natural History,
The Southwestern Research Station, is located east of the monument
in Cave Creek Canyon near Portal, Arizona. The station hosts numerous
scientists conducting field studies in the surrounding area from March
through November and has been of valuable assistance to the monument
in providing information concerning the area's flora and fauna.

Cochise County is one of the more rural counties in Arizona. Major
population centers are small towns such as Bisbee (8,000), Douglas
(12,000), Willcox (3,000) and Sierra Vista (15,000). The entire
county is highly dependent upon agriculture, mining, and tourism.
Grains dominate agriculture production but cotton, alfalfa, and
vegetables are also produced. Approximately two-thirds of the agri-
cultural income is from crops and one-third from livestock which graze
extensive areas of private and public lands.

Military expenditures, due largely to the presence of Fort Huachuca in
southwestern Cochise County, comprises sixty-one percent of government
spending in the county. The base has a daytime population of more
than fourteen thousand. More than twelve million dollars for con-
struction have been spent on the Fort Huachuca Military Reservation
in the last few years.

Thick alluvial soils in the Sulphur Springs Valley, west of the monument,
store large amounts of ground water. Recharge of ground water results
from stream flow seepage into coarse material along mountain fronts,
direct infiltration of rain water, and infiltration of excess irrigation
water. The Chiricahua Mountains contribute significantly to this
recharge of ground water. A noticeable water level decline, as much
as thirty-feet over a three month period, is occurring in the Willcox,
and San Simon basins. One apparent result of rapid water table decline
has been the appearance of earth fissures and sections of sinking land
in the Willcox and San Simon basins. These phenomena will probably
continue as the water table declines and could affect farming, highway,
railroad, and utility operations.

In a 1972 survey, conducted by a regional planning project in south-
eastern Arizona, manufacturing, industry, tourism, and local business
development were considered of greatest economic potential in Cochise
County. With reference to natural resources, the survey stated that
land availability and ground water were of greatest concern as limit-
ing factors in future development.

Arizona and California are the sources of more than one-half of the
monument's visitation. Since both of these states are experiencing
large population growth, the monument can expect increasing visitor
use. Fuel shortages and/or higher fuel prices may counteract this
effect but there is a possibility that the monument's facilities and
services may be used to capacity in the near future. In addition,
nearby landowners have been developing large scale residential sub-
divisions within 12 to 30 miles of the monument. The long term affect
that these population centers will have on the monument is unknown but
some increase in day use can be expected.

PROBABLE FUTURE ENVIRONMENT WITHOUT THE PROPOSAL

Regardless of whether the Natural Resources Management Plan is adopted
and translated into an action program the future environment of Chir-
icahua will not remain as it is today. Environmental change will occur
and the purpose of this plan is not to prevent natural environmental
changes or create a management program which attempts the impossible
task of preserving the area's natural resources in a static condition.
However, it is the purpose of this plan to minimize or eliminate
adverse environmental impacts associated with heavy visitor use and
improper management of the monument's natural resources and insure that
wherever possible all natural processes will be allowed to exert their
influences without alteration or impedance by man. Failure to implement
all or part of the proposal will preclude responsible or effective
management of the area's natural resources.

If fire is not returned to the monument's ecosystems, fuel accumulations
will continue to increase and eventually create conditions favorable for
the occurrence of holocaust ic fires. In addition, vegetation and wild-
life populations will be progressively altered as the effects of fire
exclusion become more pronounced.

Failure to fence the monument's boundaries in such a manner that will
prohibit future grazing of the monument by domestic livestock will
result in damage to vegetation systems when grazing does occur. Also,

native wildlife will be forced to compete with domestic animals for
forage and water. If heavy use areas are not rehabilitated and
visitor use patterns redirected in such a manner that will reduce
adverse impacts, then these areas will expand and continue to dete-
riorate to the point where corrective management will be difficult
or impossible.

Research actions are proposed to provide the information necessary
to make accurate management decisions concerning natural resources
and accumulate a data base which can be used by the monument staff
now and in the future. Failure to carry out proposed research actions
will assure that future natural resource management decisions will be
made in the absence of an accurate information base.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PROPOSED ACTIONS

The natural resources management plan for Chirlcahua National Monument
will have impacts upon the environment and upon those people who enjoy
and utilize the natural resources within the monument. The plan pro-
vides for the management of natural resources and visitor activities
in a manner that will not allow man's influences upon the monument to
proceed in the absence of regulation. It will result in research and
management directed to minimize disruption to ecosystems and to assure
natural processes will occur in the future.

Environmental impacts associated with proposed management actions are
of two basic categories, those which will reverse or repair environ-
mental damage caused by heavy levels of use and those which will correct
improper management decisions and policies of the past. Specific impacts
include the following:

CHIR-RM-1 Natural Resource Monitoring System

The Natural Resource Monitoring System was installed in 1974 and has
provided valuable information concerning the monument's vegetation and
soil resources. The system will continue to provide quantitative data
concerning natural resource conditions and will give park management
the capability of monitoring changes in vegetation and soil surface
characteristics in different management zones. Areas of high visitor
or maintenance impacts will be identified by the system before serious
resource damage occurs. The overall impacts of the monitoring system
will be to offer an alternative to inaccurate visual methods of resource
evaluation utilized in the past and to provide an early warning system
for natural resource deterioration.

CHIR-RM-2 Fencing of Boundaries

Grazing of domestic livestock in the monument is not provided for by
law and is not compatible with the purposes for which the monument was
created. Fencing of boundaries with barbed wire will eliminate trepass
grazing and allow vegetation, soils, and wildlife to recover from the
impacts of cattle grazing. Removal of grazing animals will allow
grasses, shrubs, and other plants to complete their annual growth
cycles without being continually browsed or grazed by domestic animals.
Soil erosion will decrease as vegetation begins to increase and cover
more soil surface area. Cattle trails and bedding sites will gradually
disappear as plant cover increases. In addition, native animal species
which utilize vegetation for food will no longer have to compete

with livestock for food or water. Fencing will also delineate the
legal boundaries of the monument, reduce accidental entry of hunters,
and assist law enforcement efforts to eliminate poaching.

The fence construction process will cause some disruption of soils
and minor destruction of vegetation. In addition, the visual intru-
sion of a straight line barbed wire fence will detract from natural
surroundings.

CHIR-RM-3 Construction of Trails

Construction of trails in the vicinity of the campground will assist
in eliminating damage to vegetation resulting from the numerous path-
ways created by random cross-country hiking. A trail around the Bonita
Canyon Campground will provide and direct public access to points of
interest in the area and provide much safer hiking conditions than
presently exist. Interpretive devices along the trail will inform
the public and discourage wood gathering, ground fires, plant removal,
and molesting of wildlife. The primary impacts of the trails will be
to redirect public use patterns, and reduce adverse environmental
impacts.

Dust and noise of machinery will be generated in the process of trail
construction. Also, soils and vegetation in the path of the trail
construction will be altered or destroyed.

CHIR-RM-4 Closure and Rehabilitation of Heavy Use Areas

Closure and rehabilitation of abandoned roads and other heavily impacted
sites will provide for the return of more nearly natural conditions and
help to erase adverse environmental impacts resulting from misuse.
Closure of campground sites on an alternating basis will allow vege-
tation and soils a recovery period. Additional management actions such
as reducing soil compaction, mulching, seeding, and irrigating will
accelerate the recovery process and enable trees, shrubs, and other
flora to withstand continued use and retain their resiliency. The
overall impacts of this action will be to reverse natural resource
deterioration in heavy use areas and remove the scars of detrimental
human activity. The aesthetic qualities of heavy use areas will be
improved as the management action progresses.

Closure of heavy use areas will temporarily or permanently exclude them
from continued public use. Rehabilitation work will disturb soils,

create dust and machine related noise and offer visual intrusion
where barriers are used to close sites.

CHIR-RM-5 Site Management With Native Plant Species

The use of native plants to revegetate barren, heavy use areas will
assist in the rehabilitation of those areas and preclude the chance

of contamination of the monument's flora by exotic species. A more
nearly natural environment will be created in heavily impacted areas
as native vegetation begins to grow and reproduce.

CHTR-KM-6 Management of Endangered and Threatened Species

This management action will have the impact of creating a management
program which will provide for the protection and perpetuation of
endangered and threatened species of plants and animals found in the
monument. In addition, those species which deserve "special" manage-
ment attention, such as endemics, will be identified and managed as
if they were endangered.

CHIR-RM-7 Fire Management

Returning fire to the monument's ecosystems will have greater impacts
on the area's natural resources than any or all of the other proposed
management actions combined. A considerable amount of data concerning
the effects of fire on vegetation types and wildlife which occur in the
monument have been collected from studies conducted in Arizona and
California. These data indicate that, in general, periodic natural
fires are necessary to reduce fuels, prevent dangerous accumulations
of fuel, stimulate the reproduction and improve the quality of many
plant species, and increase the rate of nutrient cycling of forest
ecosystems. Impacts of returning fire to Chiricahua will be that
components of the monument's ecosystems will change and return to
more nearly natural conditions.

Fire will result in the temporary reduction of air quality as smoke
is produced. Some vegetation and wildlife will be destroyed and/or
injured. Burned areas will be temporarily blackened and there is a
danger that combustible cultural artifacts could be consumed by natural
or prescribed fires. Soil erosion and water runoff rates will increase
on watershed slopes where fire has removed litter, duff, and understory
plants.

Proposed research actions are designed to cause the accumulation of
a data base concerning the monument's natural resources. The impact
of research actions will be the creation of a data base suitable for
use in resource management decision making. Failure to implement
proposed research actions will severely limit the success of several
management actions and deny monument staff of essential information.

MITIGATING MEASURES INCLUDED IN PROPOSED ACTIONS

The Natural Resources Monitoring System was designed to detect ad-
verse impacts to the monument's vegetation and soils so that correct-
tive measures can be taken to reduce or eliminate those adverse effects
which occur. The permanently marked transects which make up the system
will continue to be installed in a manner that will prevent visual
intrusion or detection by the monument's visitors.

A minimum of clearing will be conducted during the construction of
boundary fencing. Sufficient clearances will be provided so that
wildlife movement will not be hindered. The elimination and prevent-
tion of grazing by domestic livestock will have a greater beneficial
impact to the monument's natural resources than any adverse impacts
generated in the fence construction process.

The periphery trail around the Bonita Canyon Campground will follow
pathways which already exist, therefore, additional clearing of
vegetation or disturbance of soil will be held to a minimum. Consid-
eration will be given to the area's natural resources during the
planning of the trail and impacts will be confined to a manageable,
maintainable corridor.

Campground sites will be closed on an alternating basis and no more
than six campground sites will be closed at any one time. Machinery
necessary to prepare seedbeds will be operated only during those times
when campground use is at a minimum. Temporary or permanent visitor
barriers around seedbeds will not prevent or unduly delay travel in
the campground area. All fences and/or barriers will be clearly
marked and erected with visitor safety in mind.

Only plants native to Chiricahua will be used for rehabilitation of
heavy-use areas. Preliminary study will assure that the best
techniques are followed and the correct choice of species made for
reestablishing plants in barren or heavy impact areas.

Every effort will be made to assure that endangered species and those
species recognized as deserving special management attention will not
be adversely affected by any phase of the monument's management program.

The fire management program will be initiated only after appropriate
research and notification of necessary authorities, including the State
Air Quality Control Board, has been conducted. Natural fires will be
closely monitored and appropriate suppression action provided if the

need arises. All prescribed fires will be restricted to small
manageable sizes and located, whenever possible, in such a manner
that will reduce visual impacts. Local landowners, U.S. Forest
Service, Bureau of Land Management, and appropriate State agencies
will be notified prior to all prescribed fires and during natural
fires.

In compliance with the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
and Executive Order 11593, all archeological sites uncovered as a
result of natural or prescribed fires will be inventoried. Archae-
ological surveys will be made before any ground disturbing activities
such as boundary fencing trail construction, or prescribed fires are
undertaken.

ADVERSE EFFECTS WHICH CANNOT BE AVOIDED
SHOULD THE PROPOSAL BE IMPLEMENTED

The implementation of the Natural Resources Management Plan for
Chiricahua National Monument will bring about some unavoidable
adverse effects. However, these effects will be reduced through
mitigating measures or eliminated as the management actions progress
toward planned objectives.

Those adverse effects expected to occur include the following:

Fencing the monument's boundaries will have adverse impacts on the
vegetation which will be removed and/or crushed in the fence building
process. The visual impacts associated with a straight line barbed
wire fence cannot be avoided and some soil erosion will occur as a
result of travel into and out of fence construction sites.

Trail construction around the campground and to other points of
interest will create dust and noise during some construction periods.
Small amounts of vegetation will be disturbed or destroyed in the
building process. Some erosion will occur in those areas where grades
and slopes are altered to accomodate trail surfaces.

Closure and rehabilitation of campground sites and heavy use areas will
not permit full recreational use by visitors. Methods used to reduce
soil compaction will result in short-term disturbance of soils and some
erosion.

Site management with native plant species will cause minor disturbance
of soil and vegetation for a short period of time in localized areas.
Planting of native seeds by man will preclude the occurrence of natural
patterns of plant succession.

Fire management actions will provide for the return of natural fires
and allow prescribed fires under specified conditions. The return of
fire to the monument's ecosystems will ultimately be beneficial to the
area' s natural resources. However, there will be some short-term adverse
effects which will include temporary blackening of the landscape, changes
in air quality, and destruction of vegetation. There is a remote
possibility that combustible artifacts from previous cultures could
be consumed during natural or prescribed fires. In addition, there is
a possibility that fires could escape into the adjacent Coronado National
Forest or onto privately owned lands.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOCAL SHORT-TERM USES
OF MAN'S ENVIRONMENT AND THE MAINTENANCE
AND ENHANCEMENT OF LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY

The primary considerations in the development of this document were
the natural resources of Chiricahua National Monument. Adoption
and implementation of the plan will prescribe management actions
necessary for the perpetuation and protection of the natural resources
of the monument. The plan will provide for long-term productivity of
natural resources without prohibiting or greatly reducing continued
recreational use by the public.

Natural or prescribed fires will have immediate short-term effects
on the soil, animals, and plants in burned areas. In addition to
blackened landscapes, soil pH and moisture relationships will be
altered, diversity and numbers of plants and animals reduced, and
the overall structure and function of various habitats changed. The
visual aspects of these short-term effects will be temporary but other
effects will be rather long lasting. The diversity and number of plant
and animal species will gradually increase to levels higher than pre-
fire conditions. The return of fire to the area's resources will
eventually enhance the long-term productivity of those resources.

Closure of campground sites will cause short-term inconveniences to
the public and remove small areas of the monument from recreational
use. However, these inconveniences will be mitigated by a more
pleasing camping area capable of sustaining use while maintaining
its ability to recover.

Fencing of the monument's boundaries will eliminate the short-term
benefits and economic gains associated with cattle grazing but will
have the long-term effects of allowing grazed areas to recover and
remain in a reproductively active and relatively unimpaired condition.

Greater control over visitor use patterns and intensities will deny
some short-term benefits derived from uncontrolled recreational use.
However, the long-term effects will allow the vegetation and soils
of heavily impacted areas to recover and return to more nearly natural
conditions.

IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE COMMITMENTS OF
RESOURCES WHICH WOULD BE INVOLVED IN THE
PROPOSED ACTIONS SHOULD THEY BE IMPLEMENTED

Combustible artifacts could be lost in natural or prescribed fires
and would thus represent an irretrievable commitment of those
resources. No other irreversible or irretrievable commitments
of natural resources will be involved in the implementation of
the Natural Resources Management Plan for Chiricahua National
Monument .

ALTERNATIVES TO PROPOSED ACTIONS

Resource Monitoring System

Alternatives considered for this action were to continue the visual
monitoring system, employment of remote sensing techniques of re-
sources monitoring, and use of alternative field methodologies.
The visual evaluation of natural resources and their responses to
both natural and man-caused impacts has to date provided an unac-
ceptable method of assessing the condition and trend of the monument's
resources.

Remote sensing techniques have become increasingly more useful, avail-
able and sensitive to changing natural resource conditions. However,
satisfactory remote sensing data is expensive and involves the collec-
tion of ground truth information of the type provided by small plots
or other field techniques. In addition, resolution scales of remote
sensing are not appropriate for micro-site observation of vegetation
or soils. Alternative field methodologies of resource monitoring such
as examination of fossil sequences, study of landforms of differing ages,
comparison of existing features with old records, and other varieties
of sampling procedures could be adapted to the existing monitoring
program whenever appropriate.

Boundary Fencing

Alternatives considered were to allow grazing to continue without
additional fencing and to fence immediately. Trepass grazing is
incompatible with the lawful purpose of the monument and is there-
fore not an acceptable alternative. Immediate fencing of the monument
is desirable, however, the condition of the area's natural resources
coupled with the fact that trepass grazing no longer occurs does not
demonstrate a need to place a high priority on this alternative.

Bonita Canyon Periphery Trail and Closure and Rehabilitation of Heavy
Use Areas

Alternatives considered were to allow the deterioration to progress,
close the campground, fence the campground, and relocate the camp-
ground. No action would ultimately result in long-term damage to
vegetation, soils, and wildlife which depend on the existing environment,
Closure of the campground would be the most desirable alternative and

would permit total recovery of the area's natural resources. Fencing
of the campground would restrict environmental damage to the immediate
campground area but would not permit visitors to hike to points of
interest near the campground.

Site Management With Native Plants

Alternatives considered were to allow deterioration of natural resources
to continue, and to use exotic plant species. The no action alternative
is not acceptable and is not in keeping with Service policies or manage-
ment objectives. Easily managed exotic species such as Orchard grass,
Smooth Brome, Lehmann's Love grass, and Farmington Side Oats Gramma,
could be used to rehabilitate heavily impacted sites; however, the use
of exotic plant species creates the risk of genetic contamination of
native species or the introduction of an exotic plant which would replace
a native species.

Endangered Species Management

In accordance with the Endangered Species Act of 1973, there are no
alternatives. Management objectives of Chiricahua also do not provide
for alternatives to the management of plant or animal species unless
they provide for the protection, preservation and perpetuation of those
species.

Fire Management

No action was the only alternative considered. This alternative is not
acceptable since it would result in unacceptable adverse environmental
impacts to the monument's ecosystems.

Research Actions

The only alternative to research actions were essentially no action
alternatives. Failure to collect necessary data concerning natural
resources to be managed precludes responsible management of those
resources. Implementation of resource management programs without
adequate data collection can lead to environmental damage and/or
natural resource loss.

CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION

This plan was prepared by William B. Murray of Chiricahua National
Monument with assistance from the staff of the Western Regional
Office, National Park Service, in San Francisco and Chiricahua National
Monument. Contributors were Lewis Albert, Michael Eames, Bill Lukens,
Milton Kolipinski, and Andy Wigg of the National Park Service. Several
outside sources were also consulted and include Dr. Will Moir of Rodeo,
New Mexico, Dr. Donald F. Post of the University of Arizona, and
Mr. Timothy Reeves of Arizona State University.

Informational copies of the plan and environmental assessment will be
sent to the following organizations and their comments will be requested.
All letters of comment will be reviewed by the Superintendent for imple-
mentation. Copies of the assessment and public comments will be available
at the Monument and at the National Park Service, Western Regional Office
in San Francisco, California.

Bureau of Land Management, Safford, AZ

Coronado National Forest, Tucson, AZ

Environmental Protection Agency

Manager, Western Archaeological Center, National Park Service, Tucson, AZ

Arizona Game and Fish Department

Arizona State Clearinghouse

Arizona State Historic Preservation Officer

Department of Renewable Natural Resources, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ

Earl Jackson, Southwestern Parks and Monuments Association, Globe, AZ

National Audubon Society, Tucson, AZ

Sierra Club, Tucson, AZ

National Parks and Conservation Association

Southern Arizona Hiking Club

Arizona Sonora Desert Museum, Tucson, AZ.

LITERATURE CITED

Brown, D. E. & C. H. Lowe. 1974. The Arizona system for natural and
potential vegetation. Illustrated summary through the fifth
digit for the North American Southwest. J. Ariz. Acad. Sci. 9
(Suppl. 3):

Fernandez, L. A., Jr. & H. E. Enlows. 1966. Petrography of the Faraway
Ranch Formation, Chiricahua National Monument, Arizona. Bull.
Geol. Soc. Amer. 77: 1017-1030.

Gile, L. H. and J. W. Hawley. 1966. Periodic sedimentation and soil
formation on alluvial-fan peidmont in southern New Mexico. Soil
Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 30: 261-268.

Jackson, E. 1970. The Natural History Story of Chiricahua National
Monument. Globe, Arizona: Southwest Parks and Monuments Asso-
ciation. 76pp.

Johnson, Phillip W. 1962. Availability of Water for Chiricahua National
Monument Cochise County, Arizona, U.S. Geol. Survey, Geol. Survey
Water Supply Paper, 1475-H.

McGregor, John, C. 1965. Southwestern Archaeology. 2nd Ed. University
of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois.

Moir, W. H. 1974. Natural Resource Monitoring System. Unpublished
report on file at Chiricahua National Monument.

Quinn, K. , & John Roney. 1973. The Archaeological Resources of the San
Simon and Vulture Units of the Bureau of Land Management. 56pp.

Reeves, Timothy. 1976. Vegetation and Flora of Chiricahua National

Monument, Cochise County, Arizona, Masters Thesis, University of
Arizona. 179pp.

Roseberry, R. D. & N. E. Dole, Jr. 1939. The Vegetation Type Survey
of Chiricahua National Monument. San Francisco: U.S. Department
of the Interior. 42pp. and map.

Sabins, F. F., Jr. 1957. Geology of the Cochise Head and western part
of the Vanar Quadrangles, Arizona. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 68:
1315-1342 and map.

Steen, Charles, R. 1962. Excavations at Upper Ruin, Tonto National
Monument, 1940. Edited by L. R. Caywood. 32pp. Southwestern
Parks and Monuments Association, Technical Series, Vol. 2. Globe.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Texts

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Chiricahua National Monument Arizona"

See other formats